AQA Geography

The Advanced Manufacturing Park created high-skilled engineering jobs.

Kelham Island, a former industrial area in Sheffield, has been regenerated successfully. Old steel works and warehouses were converted into apartments, restaurants and creative office spaces. This attracted young professionals and investment to the area, increasing footfall and boosting the local economy. As a result, the area has been transformed from a run-down industrial zone into a vibrant, mixed-use neighbourhood.

Little Kelham is sustainable for several reasons. Firstly, it uses renewable energy – solar panels on rooftops generate electricity, reducing carbon emissions. Secondly, rainwater harvesting systems collect and reuse water, reducing waste. Thirdly, the car-free design means residents are encouraged to walk or cycle, cutting transport emissions. In addition, green roofs increase biodiversity and reduce surface water run-off. The development is also located near Sheffield's Supertram network, making public transport the easiest option. Overall, Little Kelham addresses environmental, social and economic sustainability through its design.

Rural-urban migration as people move to Lagos seeking better job opportunities, and natural population increase due to high birth rates.

Makoko is a squatter settlement built on stilts over a lagoon. Residents face poor sanitation as there is limited sewage infrastructure, leading to human waste entering the water. Access to clean water is limited, causing health problems. Homes are made from temporary materials and are vulnerable to flooding. Despite these conditions, it is home to over 100,000 people who have no alternative housing.

Stocksbridge experienced rural decline mainly due to deindustrialisation. The closure of the steel works removed the main source of employment, causing unemployment and poverty. In contrast, Castleton grew due to tourism driven by its location within the Peak District National Park. Unlike Stocksbridge, which lost its economic base, Castleton benefited from natural attractions that attracted visitors. However, both areas were affected by their economic context – Stocksbridge declined because of falling demand for steel, while Castleton grew because of increasing demand for leisure and outdoor activities. Both show how economic forces, rather than just location, shape rural change.

Shell's oil extraction in the Niger Delta has caused significant oil spills, contaminating farmland and waterways. This has destroyed the livelihoods of local communities who depend on fishing and farming. In Ogoniland, pollution has been so severe that clean-up could take decades. Furthermore, profit leakage means that most of Shell's profits go to its headquarters in the Netherlands rather than staying in Nigeria, limiting the economic benefit to local people.

TNCs such as Shell bring significant benefits to Nigeria. They create employment, both directly in the oil industry and indirectly through supply chains. They also contribute to government revenue through taxes and royalties, which can fund public services like schools and hospitals. Shell has also invested in some local infrastructure. However, the negative impacts are substantial. Oil spills in the Niger Delta have caused long-term environmental damage, destroying farmland and fishing – the main livelihoods of local communities. Profit leakage is a key problem: most profits are repatriated to the TNC's home country rather than being reinvested in Nigeria. This means the wealth generated does not fully benefit the Nigerian economy. There are also social costs: communities have been displaced and their rights ignored. On balance, while TNCs do provide jobs and tax revenue, the environmental destruction, profit leakage and exploitation of local communities suggest the negatives outweigh the benefits for ordinary Nigerians, even if the national economy grows. A more regulated relationship with TNCs, requiring stricter environmental standards and profit reinvestment, would be needed for TNCs to be genuinely more beneficial than harmful.

Tourism helps reduce Kenya's development gap in several ways. Firstly, it creates jobs – approximately 2 million Kenyans work in tourism directly and indirectly, earning income that improves living standards. Secondly, tourism generates foreign exchange: around $1.5 billion a year enters Kenya's economy, which the government can use to fund schools and hospitals. Thirdly, infrastructure built for tourists – roads, airports and utilities – also benefits local communities. However, limitations mean tourism does not fully close the development gap: profit leakage occurs when international hotel chains send profits abroad, and seasonal work means incomes are unstable. Despite these limitations, tourism remains a key tool for development in Kenya.

Population growth means more people need water for drinking and sanitation. Rising living standards also increase demand, as wealthier populations consume more water through diet changes and industry.

Climate change is a major cause of food insecurity as increasing drought and flooding reduces crop yields. For example, drought in Sub-Saharan Africa regularly causes crop failures. Conflict is another cause: wars disrupt farming and food distribution, meaning people cannot access enough food even when it is available nearby, as seen in Yemen and South Sudan.

Sand dams are a sustainable water management solution suitable for Kenya. They are cheap to construct and can be built by local communities with minimal outside help, making them affordable for low-income areas. They provide a reliable supply of clean water year-round by storing water in sand after seasonal rains, which acts as a natural filter. This improves health by reducing waterborne diseases. Sand dams also free up time for women and children who previously spent hours collecting water, allowing them to attend school or work instead.

Water transfer is needed in the UK due to a geographical mismatch between supply and demand. The north and west of the UK receive significantly more rainfall than the south and east, yet the south east has the highest population density and therefore the greatest demand. This creates a deficit in the most populated areas. Water transfer via aqueducts and pipelines can address this by moving water from surplus regions. However, it has limitations: schemes are extremely expensive to build and maintain, and can cause environmental disruption along the pipeline route. Communities may oppose reservoir construction. An alternative is reducing leakage – Thames Water loses vast amounts daily through aging pipes – which would be cheaper and more sustainable. Overall, water transfer is a necessary short-term solution, but reducing demand and fixing infrastructure are more sustainable long-term strategies.

An advantage of renewable energy is that it produces little or no carbon dioxide, helping to reduce climate change. Another advantage is that fuel is free – once built, wind turbines and solar panels generate electricity without fuel costs, making energy cheaper long term. A disadvantage is that renewables are intermittent: solar panels don't generate at night and wind turbines don't work without wind, requiring backup supplies. A second disadvantage is the high upfront cost of construction, particularly for offshore wind farms, which requires significant government investment.